How to Prepare for English Language Proficiency
Chapter one: English Grammar
Conversationمبادئ المحادثة – مبادئ القواعد
تبنى المحادثة
في اللغة الانكليزية على ثلاثة عناصر أساسية وهى:-
1- الجملة الخبرية وهى الجملة التي نعطى بها معلومات او خبر للمستمع Affirmative statement
2- وتعقيب
المستمع الذي يمكن أن يعقب على الخبر بجملة استفهامية وتسم
3-
4-
5- ي
Interrogative
statement
6- أو بالإجابة بالنفي ويسمى
جوابه بالجملة المنفية Negative statement
A) I visited Ahmed
at Yarmuk hospital yesterday. جملة خبرية أو مثبتة
B) What is wrong
with Ahmed? جملة استفهامية أو سؤال
A) I bought a new
house.
B) How much did you
pay for it?
A) Did you take your
medicine?
B) No, I didn't take
it. جملة منفية
وعلية يجب أن يفهم متحدث اللغة الانكليزية أنة هناك بناء لغوي خاص للجملة
الخبرية والجملة الاستفهامية، مما جعل علماء اللغة يقومون بتقسيم الكلام الذي
نتحدث إلي عدة أقسام ( Parts of Speech ) والهدف من هو
كيفية بناء الجمل الخبرية
والاستفهامية .Structure of
Affirmative and Interrogative statements
Parts of speech (1-Nouns 2- Pronouns 3- Verbs
4- Adjectives 5- Adverbs 6- Articles
7- Conjunctions 8- prepositions
9-demonstratives)
◄أقسام الكلام (1- الأسماء – 2- الضمائر - 3- الأفعال 4- الصفات 5- الظروف 6- أدوات التعريف- 7-أدوات الربط -8- حروف الجر -9- أدوات الإشارة
) ولكل من هذه الأقسام المذكورة اعلاه وظيفة لغوية أو أكثر وموقع معين في
الجملة فالأفعال دائماً تأتي بعد الاسم أو
الضمير ألذي تكون وظيفته فاعل، وغالباً ماتسبق الصفات الأسماء. ويقع حرف الجر قبل
ظرف المكان أو الزمان.
◄فنحن نستطيع أن ننقل رسالة We can convey a message
ولكن هل البناء اللغوي لهذه الرسالة صحيح ولو استمرينا بهذا النمط من
الكلام وبهذه الكيفية من البناء اللغوي فهل يستطيع المستمع من فهمنا بصورة صحيحة .
Me tomorrow go to Baghdad
A man there is at
the door.
◄نحن على يقين بأن المستمع قد فهم الرسالة وأننا قد أعطينا معلومة وهى الجملة الخبرية
ولكن ليس بصورة غير صحيحة فالجملة الخبرية والاستفهامية لهما نمط معين من البناء
اللغوي والقواعدي .
►Structure of affirmative sentence (Active Voice) البناء اللغوي للجملة
الخبرية المبنية للمعلوم
◄الجملة الخبرية المبنية للمعلوم ونعنى
بذلك الجملة المعروف فاعلها (التي تبتدئ بفاعل) نستطيع أن نوردها في (12) طريقة
ويرجع السبب في ذلك لاختلاف الأزمنة ( Tenses )
◄ترد الجملة
الخبرية في زمن 1-المضارع البسيط 2-
المضارع البسيط المستمر 3- المضارع التام 4-
المضارع التام المستمر)
1-Simple present tense 2-present continuous 3- present
perfect 4- perfect continuous.
◄ترد الجملة
الخبرية في زمن 1-الماضي البسيط 2- الماضي
البسيط المستمر 3- الماضي التام 4-
الماضي التام المستمر)
1-Simple past tense 2-past continuous 3- past perfect
4- past perfect continuous.
◄ترد الجملة
الخبرية في زمن 1-المستقبل البسيط 2-
المستقبل البسيط المستمر 3- المستقبل التام 4-
المستقبل التام المستمر)
1-Simple
future tense 2-future continuous 3- future perfect 4- future perfect continuous
.
البناء اللغوي للجملة الخبرية►Structure
of Affirmative Statement
STATEMENTS
A statement is a sentence which gives information. If
you make a statement, you usually give the sentence a subject, and this must go
in front of the verb.
(1)
+
(2) + (3) + (4)
فاعل Subject + فعل مساعد helping verb + فعل رئيسي main
verb +
معلومات information
ضمير Pronoun +
helping verb + main verb +
information
حرفة Profession + helping
verb +
main verb + information
ضمير
الفاعل(مفرد)
|
المفعول
به
|
ضمير
الفاعل (جمع)
|
المفعول
به
|
1- I أنا
|
me
|
2- we نحن
|
us
|
3- you أنت مذكر/ومؤنث
|
you
|
4- you انتم
أنتن/
|
you
|
5- he هو
|
him
|
6- she هي
|
her
|
7- it لغير العاقل
|
it
|
8- they هم
|
them
|
Helping Verbs: الافعال المساعدة
|
Helping verbs have no meaning on their own. They are
necessary for the grammatical structure of a sentence, but they do not tell us
very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main
verbs. They "help" the
main verb (which has the real meaning). There are only about (15) helping verbs
in English, and we divide them into two basic groups:
Primary helping verbs (3 verbs)
These are the verbs be, do, and have.
Note that we can use these three verbs as helping verbs or as main
verbs. On this page we talk about them as helping verbs. We use them in the
following cases:
- be
- to make continuous tenses (He is watching
TV.)
- to make the passive (Small fish are eaten
by big fish.)
- have
- to make perfect tenses (I have finished
my homework.)
- do
- to make negatives (I do not like you.)
Modal helping verbs
(10 verbs)
We use modal helping verbs to "modify" the meaning
of the main verb in some way. A modal helping verb expresses necessity or
possibility, and changes the main verb in that sense. These are the modal
verbs:
can, could ,may, might
,will, would, shall, should ,must ,ought to
Here are examples using modal verbs:
►I can't speak Chinese.
►Jehad may arrive late.
►Would you
like a cup of coffee?
►You should see a doctor.
► I really must go now.
HOW TO USE
MODAL VERBS
• Modal verbs are used with the basic form
of the verb (="the" infinitive form, without ‘to’).
►You must pay now. NOT You must to pay now.
►They can go home if they want. NOT
They can to go home if they want.
•
Modal verbs do not have an ‑s ending in the present tense of the third person singular,
►He can speak French. NOT He cans speak French.
•
Modal verbs do not use do in questions or negatives.
►Can you remember her name? NOT
Do you can remember her name?
►We must not be late. NOT We don’t must be late.
►Should we lock the door? NOT Do we should lock the door?
Structure of Affirmative statements بناء الجملة الخبرية
فاعل فغل مساعد فعل رئيسي معلومات
1- Daham is teaching English at Akkad
institute.
2- They
are studying English at Akkad institute.
3- The manager is having a meeting at the moment.
4- I have forgotten to switch off the lights.
5- It has been raining since morning.
6- I had taken my
medicine before I had my lunch
7-
Fatema was praying when you phoned.
8-I will bring your book this evening.
9-I am going to make you a cup of tea.
10- I will be
watching the match at
5:00PM.
مهم جداً
لعلك قد تلاحظ
أن هذه الأمثلة تخلو من أي مثال لجملة المضارع البسيط أو الماضي البسيط فما هو
السبب في ذلك ؟
◄ الغاية من وجود الفعل المساعد في الجملة الخبرية هو تحديد زمن الفعل وسوف
نقوم بشرح عملي
لذلك عند دراسة الأزمنة .
◄ لماذا لا تحتاج جملة المضارع البسيط simple present و جملة الماضي البسيط simple tense
إلى فعل مساعد
مثل (am –is- are- was –were- has – have –had –will - )
لقد ذكرنا فيما
سبق بأن وظيفة الفعل المساعد في الجملة الخبرية هو تحديد زمن الفعل .
فالفعل المساعد
( am / is / are)
يسبق الفعل الرئيسي في جملة المضارع البسيط المستمر ليدل على شئ واحد أو ليحدد زمن
الفعل أي أنه وفي هذه اللحظة التي يجري
بها الحديث فان الفعل قيد العمل والاستمرار أي لم ينتهي.
You use the present
progressive (continuous) to talk about something which is happening now at the
time you are speaking or writing. You often use this meaning with words and
phrases that express present time, such as now, at the moment, and currently.
A) May I speak to Daham, please .ممكن اكلم دحام لو سمحت
B)
Sorry,
He is praying .أسف أنة في هذه اللحظة يصلي ( أي في هذه اللحظة التي
تتكلم معي قاعد يصلي )
أي أن دحام بداء بالصلاة ولازال حتى هذه اللحظة يصلى ولم ينتهي منها .
◄وبما أن الزمن المضارع البسيط غير محدد بزمن فنحن عندما
نستخدم الزمن المضارع البسيط فنحن نتكلم أو نقصد الماضي والحاضر والمستقبل .
1. You use
the simple present to talk about something which is happening now, and which
will continue to happen in the future. You often use the simple present in this
meaning to talk about things that are true about your life, for example where
you live, your job, or the kinds of things you like.
►Ali drives
taxi (he does it in the past, present and future)
►O you who
believe, when you rise up for prayer wash your faces, ………...
(the action is general , it happens the
same all the time )
►Basem lives
in Babylon
►I work in a
hospital.
2. You use
the simple present when you talk about something which happens again and again,
or when you say that something happens regularly at a particular time. Use
words such as always, often, sometimes, occasionally, and never, or phrases
such as on Tuesdays or every day with the simple present in this meaning.
► They often
go out to restaurants.
► I travel
to Baghdad twice a month.
► He gets up
at 6 o'clock.
► Ali prays
at the mosque everyday.
3. You use the simple present to talk about
something which stays the same for ever - such as a scientific fact.
► Oil floats
on water.
►Two and two
make four.
لا حظ أن
جملة أن النفط يطفو على سطح الماء جملة صالحة لكل زمان ومكان فهي غير محددة بزمن .
و 2 + 2 =
4 جملة صالحة ولا تتغير بكل ومكان وزمان
وبجميع اللغات فعلية لا ضرورة لفعل مساعد يحددها بزمن معين .
4. You use the simple present when you are
describing what is happening at the exact moment when you are speaking. This
meaning of the simple present is used for example in sports commentaries.
► Emad gets
the ball from Nashat. He shoots ‑ and scores!
► May I use
the phone please.
يأخذ عماد الكرة من نشأت يسدد وسيجل هدف ( ألان في هذه اللحظة فالزمن محدد
فعلية لا حاجة لفعل مساعد لتحديده )
وهذا الحال ينطبق على جملة الماضي البسيط simple past tense فالزمن محدد سلفاً فلا حاجة لاستخدام فعل مساعد
لغاية موجودة سلفاً
►You use the
simple past to talk about an action which happened and finished in the past.
There is a space between the time when the action happened, and the time when
you are speaking or writing about it. There is no relation between the past and
now.
I visited Meithem at the
hospital yesterday.
I was sick last week.
The police found a dead body
in the river.
My father arrived from Umra
two days ago.
Interrogative
statements (QUESTIONS) الجملة الاستفهامية ( الأسئلة )
Questions are
sentences which ask for information. They fall into three main types, depending
on the kind of reply they expect.
‘Yes‑no questions’ expect a simple yes or no reply (or a word or phrase
which can
be used instead of yes or no). In these
cases, you change the order of subject and
verb.
Will the prime minister resign?
هل سيستقيل رئيس الوزراء ؟
(Possible
answers: yes, no, don’t know; probably, maybe …. etc)
Are they ready?
Tag questions: You can change a statement into a question by adding
a ‘tag question’ at the end of it. When you use a tag question, you are asking
the listener to agree with the statement you have just made. If you make the
statement positive, you expect the answer yes. If you make it negative, you
expect the answer no.
A tag question is a type of ‘yes‑no question’, and shows the same change of word order.
You use the same personal pronoun (she, they etc) and tense of the verb as in
the statement to which the tag question is joined. In the most common kind of
tag question, you change from positive to negative, or from negative to
positive.
She’s outside, isn’t she?
(Expected answer: yes)
They were ready, weren’t
they? (Expected answer: yes)
You aren’t going, are you?
(Expected answer: no)
It isn’t difficult, is it?
(Expected answer: n
Structure of Interrogative Statements or Questions بناء الجملة
الاستفهامية
◄هناك صيغتان للاستفهام في اللغة
الانجليزية .
◄الصيغة الأولي وهي استخدام الأفعال
المساعدة helping verbs أو auxiliary
verbs و
modal helping verbs
. وجميع هذه الأفعال المساعدة تشكل أداة استفهام واحدة تعني (هل) ولكن في سياقات مختلفة يأتي شرحها لاحقاً :-
هل؟
Helping verbs –
Present (المضارع )
|
Past (الماضي )
|
Am I so bad ?
|
Was I so bad yesterday?
|
Is your father home, please?
|
Was your father home two hours ago?
|
Are you at the party at the moment?
|
Were you at the wedding yesterday?
|
Do you speak English?
|
Did you speak English at the meeting?
|
Does Ali live in Hilla?
|
Did Ali live in Al Hilla last year?
|
Has Fatema got a house?
|
Had Fatema got a house in Al Basra?
|
Have you got children ?
|
Had you got a car last year?
|
Will Ali join us to the party?
|
Would
|
Shall I stay home till you arrive?
|
Should
|
Can you repair my laptop?
|
Could
|
Structure of
Interrogative Statements بناء الجملة الاستفهامية
When using
helping or modal verbs عند استخدام الأفعال المساعدة
كأداة استفهام
Am
___? Is _____? Are _______?
Am – Is – Are- Was - Were
|
Noun- pronoun- profession
|
information
|
|
هل
|
اسم – ضمير – مهنة
|
معلومات
|
?
|
Is
|
Daham - He- the English teacher
|
At the classroom?
|
|
يمكن استخدام أفعال الكينونة verbs to be (am –is -are ) في الحاضر آو شكلها الماضي كأدوات استفهام
بمعنى هل للسؤال عن :-
1-
adjectives - الصفات
► Is he rich? هل هو غني
► Is she beautiful?هل هي جملية
► Are
the rooms very wide ? هل الغرف واسعة
جدا
2-
Health ,mental , marital states or status
الحالات الصحية والعقلية أو الذهنية
والاجتماعية
►Are you sick ?هل أنت مريض
►Is he crazy ?هل أنت مجنون
►Are
you married ?هل أنت متزوج
►Is Fatima a widower ?هل فاطمة أرملة
►Are
you a bachelor / a spinster ? هل أنت أعزب أو عزباء
3-
presence or absence الوجود – أو الحضور – الغياب
►Are you at work?هل أنت بالعمل
►Is the manager at his office?هل المدير
في مكتبة
► Were you absent yesterday? هل كنت غائباً أمس
► Was Ali present yesterday ? هل كان
على حاضرا أمس
4-
vocational states – professions الحالات المهنية أو المعيشية
►Are you eyes specialist? هل أنت أخصائي
عيون
► Is he a lawyer? هل هو المحامي
► Are you watchman? هل أنت البواب
Verbs to have ( Has + Have)
يستخدم الفعل to have للسؤال عن الملكية ( هل -------- يملك أو لدية
--------------؟
Have with
=I + You + We +They
Has with = he +she+ it
يجب ان يلاحظ من يريد التحدث باللغة الانجليزية , أي توجيه سؤال بهذه اللغة أن الانجليزية البريطانية تستخدم نمط يختلف عن
الانجليزية الأمريكية عند السؤال عند الملكية.
English ( Have or
Has +subject+ information)?
هل + فاعل + معلومات ?
1-Have you a master degree? هل لديك شهادة ماجستير؟
2-Have you a printing department in your firm?هل لديكم قسم طباعة في مؤسستكم؟
3-Has
Ali a car ? هل
يملك على سيارة؟
4-Has Fatima children? هل لدى فاطمة أطفال؟
5-Had
you time to finish the work? هل كان لديك وقت لإنهاء العمل ؟
American (Do or
Does +Subject + Infinitive verb+ Information)?
هل +
فاعل
+ فعل مصدر معلومات + ?
1- Do
you have a master degree?
2- Do
you have a printing department in your firm?
3- Does
Ali have a car?
4-
Does Fatima have children?
5-
Did you have time to finish the work?
◄الصيغة الثانية وهي باستخدام أدوات الاستفهام :-
Wh‑ questions’
begin with a question word, such as what, why, where, or how.
This kind of question can have a wide range of different replies. The answer
may be a full sentence, or one which leaves out the words that you can guess
from knowing the question. Here too, you need to change the order of subject
and verb.
Where are you going?
(Possible answers: I’m going to work, downstairs, the library)
‘Alternative questions’
give the listener a choice of two possible replies, both of which are
mentioned in the question. The two possibilities are connected by the word or.
Once again, you must change the order of subject and verb.
Will you travel by
train or by boat? (Possible answers: by train, by boat, don’t know)
◄الصيغة الثانية وهي استخدام كلمات
الاستفهام Question words
Wh –question words
الوظيفة
|
المعني
|
أداة الاستفهام
|
طلب معلومات
محددة
|
ما – ماذا – ما هو
|
What
|
السؤال عن
ظرف مكان
|
أين
|
Where
|
السؤال عن
ظرف زمان
|
متى
|
When
|
طلب تعليل أو
استفسار عن شئ
|
لماذا
|
Why
|
سؤال عن
الفاعل العاقل
|
من
|
Who
|
سؤال عن المفعول
بة العاقل
|
من
|
Whom
|
للاختيار –
ماذا تفضل أو ترغب بــ
|
أي
|
Which
|
سؤال إلي من
تعود الأشياء
|
لمن
|
Whose
|
للسؤال عن
العدد أو الحالات
|
كيف - كم
|
How
|
How to ask a question using the above question words?
Question word
+auxiliary verb+ subject +verb+ information
What will you do
if he comes late?
Daham : What are you doing
today?
Nabeel : Perhaps we could go
to Juma's wedding party together.
Daham : Where shall we meet?
Nabeel : At Akkad institute .
Daham : When shall I report
there?
Nabeel: At 7:00 sharp.
Asking about people and things:-
When we want to ask a
question about things , people , places . We use question words (interrogative)
We use question words in the following ways:
What ? ________ question
about things or actions
What is that
floating on the water? It is a piece of wood.
Who? __________ a question
about people.
Who is coming
to the meeting ? Mr Adnan is.
Who will
attend the meeting ?
Where? _________ a question
about location or places
Where is Mr. Daham? He is in the classroom .
When? ________ a question about time.
When shall I switch the generator ? At 10: 30 PM.
Which ?_________ a question about choice.
Which one do
like? I like the green one.
Why? ___________a question about reason .
Why should I pay for
the meal? Because I have forgotten my
wallet.
Whose _____ a question about possession
Whose book is this?
How ______ questions about means or methods
NEGATIVE STATEMENTS
Negative statements are made
in two main ways:
1. If the
statement contains an auxiliary verb, such as is or have, you usually add not
or its contracted form n’t.
She is not leaving. OR She isn’t leaving.
Am and may do not allow n’t.
Will, shall, and can have special contracted forms: won’t, shan’t, can’t.
The same rules apply when you
make a question negative.
Are they in the garden?
Aren’t they in the garden?
Will he get the job? Won’t he
get the job?
2. If the
statement has no auxiliary verb, you need to make the negative using a form of
do + not/n’t. Make sure that the main verb is in its basic form.
She likes swimming. She
doesn’t like swimming. NOT She doesn’t likes swimming.
I saw a ship. I didn’t see a
ship. NOT I didn’t saw a ship.
Chapter Two:
Reading Comprehension
Directions and Example for
Reading Questions
This section is designed to measure your
ability to read and understand short passages. This section contains reading
passages and questions about the passages.
PROBLEM 1: Previewing (المراجعة)
Research shows that it is easier to
understand what you are reading if you begin with a general idea of what the
passage is about. Previewing helps you form a general idea of the topic in your
mind.
To preview, read the first sentence of
each paragraph and the last sentence of the passage. You should do this as
quickly as possible. Remember, you are not reading for specific information,
but for an impression of the topic.
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS: Preview the
following passage Focus on the first sentence in each paragraph and the last sentence
of the passage. Can you identify the topic?
A black hole is
a region of space created by the total gravitational collapse of matter. It is
so intense that nothing, not even light or radiation, can escape. In other
words, it is a one way surface through which matter can fall inward but cannot
emerge.
Some astronomers
believe that a black hole may be formed when a large star collapses inward from
its own weight. So long as they are emitting heat and light into space, stars
support themselves against their own gravitational pull with the outward
thermal pressure generated by heat from nuclear reactions deep in their
interiors. But if a star eventually exhausts its nuclear fuel. then its
unbalanced gravitational attraction could cause it to contract and collapse.
Furthermore. it could begin to pull in surrounding matter, including nearby
comets and planets, creating a black hole.
PROBLEM 2: Reading for Main Ideas
(القراءة
للافكار الاساسية)
By previewing, you can form a general
idea of what a reading passage is about; that is, you identify the topic. By
reading for main ideas, you identify the point of view of the author—that is,
what the writer thesis is. Specifically, what does the author propose to write
about the topic? If you could reduce the reading to one sentence, what would it
be? Questions about the main idea can be worded in many ways. For example, the
following questions are all asking for the same information:
(1) What is the main idea? (2)
What is the subject? (3) What would be a good title?
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS: The main idea
usually occurs at the beginning of a reading passage. Look at the first two sentences
in the following passage. Can you identify the main idea? What
would be a good title for this passage?
For more than a century, despite attacks by a few opposing scientists,
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection has stood firm. Now,
however, some respected biologists are beginning to question whether the theory
accounts for major developments such as the shift from water to land
habitation. Clearly, evolution has not proceeded steadily but has progressed by
radical advances. Recent research in molecular biology, particularly in the
study of DNA, provides us with a new possibility. Not only environmental change
but also genetic codes in the underlying structure of DNA could govern
evolution.
PROBLEM 3: Using Contexts for
Vocabulary (استخدام
المضمون لايجاد المفردات)
Before you can use a context, you must
understand what a context is. In English, a context is the combination of
vocabulary and grammar that surrounds a word. Context can be a sentence or a
paragraph or a passage. Context helps you make a general prediction about
meaning. If you know the general meaning of a sentence, you also know the
general meaning of the words in the sentence.
Making predictions from contexts is very
important when you are reading a foreign language. In this way you can read and
understand the meaning of a passage without stopping to look up every new word
in a dictionary.
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS: Read the
following passage, paying close attention to the underlined words.
Can you understand their meanings
from the context without using a dictionary?
At the age of sixty-six, Harland Sanders had to auction off
everything he owned in order to pay his debts. Once the successful proprietor
of a large restaurant, Sanders saw his business suffer from the construction of
a new freeway that bypassed his establishment and rerouted the traffic that had
formerly passed.
With an income of only $105 a month in Social Security, he packed his
car with a pressure cooker, some chickens, and sixty pounds of the seasoning
that he had developed for frying chicken. He stopped at restaurants, where he
cooked chicken for owners to sample. If they liked it, he offered to
show them how to cook it. Then he sold them the seasoning and collected a royalty
of four cents on each chicken they cooked. The rest is history. Eight years later.
There were 638 Kentucky Fried Chicken franchises, and Colonel Sanders had sold
his business again—this time for over two million dollars.
PROBLEM 4: Scanning for Details (مسح القطعة لاغراض التفاصيل)
After reading a passage, you will be
expected to answer a number of questions. Most of them are multiple-choice.
First, read a question and find the important content words. Content words are usually
nouns, verbs, or adjectives. They are called content words because they contain
the content or meaning of a sentence.
Next, let your eyes travel quickly over
the passage for the same content words or synonyms of the words. This is called
scanning. By scanning, you can find a place in the reading passage where the answer
to a question is found. Finally, read those specific sentences carefully and
choose the answer that corresponds to the meaning of the sentences you have
read.
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS: First, read the
following passage. Then, read the questions after the reading passage, and look
for the content words. Finally, scan the passage for the same words or
synonyms. Can you answer the questions?
To prepare for a career in engineering, a student must begin planning in
high school. Mathematics and science should form the core curriculum. For
example, in a school where sixteen credit hours are required for high school
graduation, four should be in mathematics, one each in chemistry, biology, and
physics. The remaining credits should include four in English and at least
three in the humanities and social sciences. The average entering freshman in
engineering should have achieved at least a 2.5 grade point average on a 4.0
scale in his or her high school. Although deficiencies can be corrected during
the first year, the student who needs additional work should expect to spend
five instead of four years to complete a degree.
Questions:
1. What is the average grade
point for an entering freshman in engineering?
2. When should a student begin
planning for a career in engineering?
3. How can a student correct
deficiencies in preparation?
4. How many credits should a
student have in English?
5. How many credits are required
for a high school diploma?
PROBLEM 5: Making Inferences (عمل استنتاج)
Sometimes, in a reading passage, you will
find a direct statement of fact. That is called evidence. But other times, you
will not find a direct statement. Then you will need to use the evidence you
have to make an inference. An inference is a logical conclusion based on evidence.
It can be about the passage itself or about the author's viewpoint.
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS: First, read the
following passage. Then, read the questions after the passage, and make inferences.
Can you find the evidence for your inference in the reading passage?
When an acid is dissolved in water, the acid molecule divides into two
parts, a hydrogen ion and another ion. An ion is an atom or a group of atoms
that has an electrical charge. The charge can be either positive or negative.
If hydrochloric acid is mixed with water, for example, it divides into hydrogen
ions and chlorine ions.
A strong acid ionizes to a great extent, but a weak acid does not ionize
so much. The strength of an acid, therefore, depends on how much it ionizes,
not on how many hydrogen ions are produced. It is interesting that nitric acid
and sulfuric acid become greatly ionized whereas boric acid and carbonic acid
do not.
Questions:
1- What kind of acid is sulfuric
acid?
2- What kind of acid is boric
acid?
PROBLEM 6: Identifying Exceptions
(تحديد
الاستثناء)
After reading a passage, you will be
asked to select from four possible answers the one that is NOT mentioned in the
reading.
Use your scanning skills to locate
related words and phrases in the passage and the answer choices.
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS: First, read the
following passage. Then, read the question after the reading passage. Last,
scan the passage again for related words and phrases. Try to eliminate three of
the choices.
All music consists of two elements—expression and design. Expression is
inexact and subjective and may be
enjoyed in a personal or instinctive way. Design, on the other hand, is exact
and must be analyzed objectively in order to be understood and appreciated. The
folk song, for example, has a definite musical design that relies on simple
repetition with a definite beginning and ending. A folk song generally consists
of one stanza of music repeated for each stanza of verse.
Because of their communal and usually uncertain origin, folk songs are
often popular verse set to music. They are not always recorded and tend to be
passed on in a kind of musical version of oral history. Each singer revises and
perfects the song. In part as a consequence of this continuous revision
process, most folk songs are almost perfect in their construction and design. A
particular singer's interpretation of the folk song may provide an interesting
expression, but the simple design that underlies the song itself is stable and
enduring.
Question:
1. All of the following are true
of a folk song EXCEPT
(A) there is a clear start and finish
(B) the origin is often not known
(C) the design may change in the
interpretation
(D) simple repetition is
characteristic of its design
PROBLEM 7: Locating References (تحديد مصدر الضمير)
After reading a passage, you will be
asked to find the antecedent of a pronoun. An antecedent is a word or phrase to
which a pronoun refers. Usually, you will be given a pronoun such as "it,"
"its," "them," or "their," and you will be asked
to locate the reference word or phrase in the passage.
First, find the pronoun in the passage.
Then read the sentence using the four answer choices in place of the pronoun.
The meaning of the sentence in the context of the passage will not change when you
substitute the correct antecedent.
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS: First, find the
pronoun in the following passage. Next, start reading several sentences before
the sentence in which the pronoun is found, and continue reading several
sentences after it. Then, substitute the words or phrases in the answer
choices. Which one does not change the meaning of sentence?
The National Road, also known as the Cumberland Road, was constructed in
the early 1800s to provide transportation between the established commercial
areas of the East and Northwest Territory. By 1818, the road had reached
Wheeling, West Virginia, 130 miles from its point of origin in Cumberland,
Maryland. The cost was a monumental thirteen thousand dollars per mile.
Upon reaching the Ohio River, the National Road became one of the major
trade routes to the western states and territories, providing Baltimore with a
trade advantage over neighboring cities. In order to compete, New York state
authorized the construction of the Erie Canal, and Philadelphia initiated a
transportation plan to link it with Pittsburgh. Towns along the rivers, canals,
and the new National Road became important trade centers.
Questions:
1. The word its in line 3 refers
to
(A) the Northwest Territory (B) 1818 (C) the road (D)
Wheeling, West Virginia
2. The word it in line 8 refers
to
(A) plan (B) construction (C)
canal (D) transportation
PROBLEM 8: Referring to the
Passage (الاشارة الى
القطعة)
After reading the passage, you will be
asked to find certain information in the passage, and identify it by line
number or paragraph. First, read the question. Then refer to the line numbers
and paragraph numbers in the answer choices to scan for the information in the
question.
EXERCISE
DIRECTIONS: First, read the
following passage. Then, refer back to the passage. Can you find the correct reference?
In September of 1929, traders experienced a lack of confidence in the
stock market's ability to continue its phenomenal rise. Prices fell. For many
inexperienced investors, the drop produced a panic. They had all their money
tied up in the market, and they were pressed to sell before the prices fell
even lower. Sell orders were coming in so fast that the ticker tape at the New
York Stock Exchange could not accommodate all the transactions.
To try to reestablish confidence in the market, a powerful group of New
York bankers agreed to pool their funds and purchase stock above
current market values. Although the buy orders were minimal, they were counting
on their reputations to restore confidence on the part of the smaller
investors, thereby affecting the number of sell orders. On Thursday, October
24, Richard Whitney, the Vice President of the New York Stock Exchange and a
broker for the J.P. Morgan Company, made the effort on their behalf. Initially,
it appeared to have been successful, then, on the following Tuesday, the crash
began again and accelerated. By 1932, stocks were worth only twenty percent of
their value at the 1929 high. The results of the crash had extended into every
aspect of the economy, causing a long and painful depression,
referred to in American history as the Great Depression.
Questions:
1. Where in the passage does the
author refer to the reason for the stock market crash?
2. Where in the passage does the
author suggest that there was a temporary recovery in the stock market?
PROBLEM 8: Reading Faster (القراءة
السريعة)
Read the following passage, using the
skills you have learned. Preview, read for main ideas, and use contexts for vocabulary. To read faster, read
phrases instead of words. Try to see an entire line of text when you focus your
eyes on the passage. Scan for details and evidence. Make inferences.
Jazz is an improvisational form of music that originated in the southern
United States after the Civil War. Although its origins and history are
somewhat vague, we know that it began as the musical expression of black people
who had formerly been slaves, combining hymns, spirituals, and traditional work
songs into something quite new. The style was a blend of the
rhythms brought to America by the Africans who were as slave labor and the
popular music of the era that featured the ragtime
piano. The term jazz itself is of obscure and possible nonmusical origin, but
it was first used to describe this particular kind of musical expression in
about 1915.
A jazz band commonly includes four to twelve musicians with a relatively
large proportion of the group in the rhythm section. Customarily, there are a
drummer, a bass player, and a pianist. Often there is also a
banjo player or guitarist. In traditional jazz, the clarinet, trumpet, and
trombone carry the melody. In more modern jazz, the saxophone, violin, and
flute may also be included in the melody section. Some jazz bands employ a
blues singer. Most jazz is premised on the principle that an almost infinite
number of variations can accommodate themselves to a progression of chord that
can be repeated indefinitely to feature an improvisation by solo instruments or
vocalists. For example, while the trumpet plays the melody, the
clarinet might embellish and invent compatible melodies around the original
theme. Such improvisation is a test of the jazz musician's skill and is
referred to as tone color.
Jazz first became popular outside the United States in the 1920s when
jazz bands began to record, distribute, and even export their recordings to
Europe. Since jazz is improvisational, it does not exist in the form of printed
scores, and recorded performances were and still are the best way of preserving
the music. A very basic library of recorded jazz would include work by such
classic artists as Jelly Roll Morton, Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Count
Basie, and Billie Holiday, Theirs is probably America's most unique and most
important contribution to the musical world, although a few contemporary
artists are keeping the tradition alive.
Questions:
1-
What is the main topic of the passage?
2-
What is the meaning of the underlined word "blend" in the passage?
3- The music jazz was first heard
(a)
in Europe
(b)
in Africa
(c)
in south America
(d)
in North America
4-
The author mentions all of the following as characteristics of jazz EXCEPT:
(a)
a large number
of percussion instruments
(b)
a printed score
for the music
(c)
a melody played
by the trumpet
(d)
a ragtime
piano
Examination Task
Q1/
Read the following passage carefully:
Harvard
University researchers found that of five personal health practices – smoking,
physical activity, alcohol consumption, hours of sleep, and eating behavior
–only one, smoking, is related to how long older people will live. Elderly
women who have never smoked cigarettes will live longer than those who have,
whereas among elderly men, there is no significant connection between health
practices and mortality. The researchers do claim, however, that
although they might not live longer, older people who switch over to healthy
lifestyles will probably feel better and suffer fewer disabilities than those
who continue with their unhealthy habits.
Now
attempt the following:
1.
How does smoking influence the life of older people?
2.
Give a suitable title to the passage.
3.
In no more than three lines, summarize the main ideas of the passage using your
own words.
4.
Give the English meaning of the underlined word.
5.
Fill the following blanks with information from the text above:
a-The
researchers limited their study to the influence of on only ……………… on life.
b-
The sample of the study included ………….and……… .
c-
Feeling better and suffering fewer disabilities can be one of the benefits of
…………… .
Q2/
Read the passage carefully:
Beware
of those who use the truth to deceive. When someone tells you something
that is true, but leaves out important information that should be included, he
can create a false impression.
For
example, someone might say, “I just won a hundred dollars on the lottery. It
was great. I took that dollar ticket back to the store and turned it in for one
hundred dollars!”
This
guy’s a winner, right? Maybe, maybe not. We then discover that he bought two
hundred tickets, and only one was a winner. He’s really a big loser!
He
didn’t say anything that was false, but he deliberately omitted
important information. That’s called a half-truth. Half-truths are not
technically lies, but they are just as dishonest.
Untrustworthy
candidates in political campaigns often use this tactic. Let’s say that during
Governor Smith’s last term, her state lost one million jobs and gained three
million jobs. Then she seeks another term. One of her opponents runs an ad
saying, “During Governor Smith’s term, the state lost one million jobs!” That’s
true. However an honest statement would have been, “During Governor Smith’s
term, the state had a net gain of two million jobs.”
Advertisers
will sometimes use half-truths. It’s against the law to make false claims so
they try to mislead you with the truth. An ad might boast, “Nine out of ten
doctors recommend Yucky Pills to cure nose pimples.” It fails to mention
that they only asked ten doctors and nine of them work for the Yucky
Corporation.
This kind of deception happens too
often. It’s a sad fact of life: Lies are lies, and sometimes the truth can lie
as well.
A/
Answer the following questions with information from the passage above.
1
. Which statement is true according to the above passage?
a. Whenever people tell the truth, they
are really lying.
b. You can’t trust gamblers.
c. All governors help their states.
d. The truth can be used in dishonest ways.
2. The underlined word “deceive” in the
first paragraph is closest in meaning to
a.
removing one’s teeth in public
b.
ignore warnings
c.
fool
d.
repair
3.
What is the meaning of half truths?
a. telling the truth
b. giving full information
c. lying
d. giving dishonest information
4. According to the passage
a.
half truths are good.
b.
it is better not to tell the whole truth.
c.
sometimes there is a lie in the truth.
d.
half truth can create a good impression.
5.
The man of the tickets
a. is a real winner.
b. is not a winner.
c. is a politician.
d. told the truth.
B/
Attempt the following with information from the passage above.
1.
Give a suitable title to the passage.
2.
In no more than three lines, summarize the main ideas of the passage using your
own words.
3.
Give the meaning of the underlined word “omitted “in the fourth
paragraph.
4.
What does the author want people to do?
5. The underlined pronoun “It” in
the sixth paragraph refers to…
Chapter Three: Written Conversation
1.
World of computers
A- Listening
|
1. What is the main topic of this conversation?
A. computer sales negotiations
B. a preliminary interview
C. an Internet seminar meeting
2. From the discussion, what did Mr. Taylor probably do
for his previous company?
A. He managed the sales department.
B. He gave seminars on the Internet.
C. He worked as a custodian.
3. Mr. Taylor thinks that Java is:
A. a Web page authoring program.
B. a kind of beverage.
C. a computer game software.
4. What does the man mean when he says, "We'll be in
touch" at the end of the conversation?
A. He will call Mr. Taylor in the next few days.
B. He talk over their discussion with others.
C. He will not contact him for further consideration.
5. Choose the best word(s) to describe Mr. Taylor:
A. on the ball
B. high achiever
C. uninformed
B- Text
completion
Man: Okay, Mr. Taylor, let's go ahead and begin. First of
all, tell me about your last job.
Mr. Taylor: Well, as (1)………………….
on my resume, I worked for five years at Hi Tech Computers.
Man: Okay. Hi Tech. And what do you know about computer (2)…………………… and operating systems including
DOS, Windows, Macintosh OS, and UNIX?
Mr. Taylor: Umm . . . well . . . I did come in contact
with computers every (3)………………………..
at my last job.
Man: Hum! . . . And how about web site authoring skills?
[Oh]. We are looking for someone to (4)…………………
and manage our company's web site which would (5)……………………….
the development, configuration, and use of CGI scripts.
Mr. Taylor: Umm . . . uh, web page, web page. Huh . . . I
don't think I've read that book, and I'm afraid I've (6)………………………… used those CGI things.
2- Computer
Sales and Repairs
A-Listening
1.
What is the man's main problem with his computer?
A. It crashes a lot.
B. His computer has a virus.
C. It has a lot of junk software.
2.
What is the issue with the computer warranty?
A. The warranty has expired since he bought the computer.
B. The warranty isn't valid because didn't register the computer.
C. The warranty doesn't cover software issues and problems.
3.
What can we infer from the first company's response to the caller?
A. They sent the man the wrong computer in the first place.
B. The company doesn't provide warranties for their products.
C. They are understaffed to handle customer complaints.
4.
Which of the following is a main selling point for the second company being
advertised?
A. Their products are the newest on the market.
B. The computers are cheaper than those sold by competitors.
C. The company manufactures secure and trustworthy machines.
5.
What is the name of the second company?
A. Turbo Command
B. Turvo Computers
C. Turban Camando
B-
Multiple-choice
1.
If companies don't ________ by developing new interesting products, they will
lose business to other competitors.
A.
deserve
B. imitate
C. innovate
2.
If your computer is having problems and it is still ______ warranty, then you
should take it back so they can fix it.
A. under
B. above
C. beneath
3.
That store wasn't able to __________________ my computer's problem, so I have
to take it somewhere else where they really know how to fix things.
A. diagnose
B. freeze
C. clutter
4.
My computer is _______________ a little slow today, and I'm not sure what the
problem is.
A. moving
B. running
C. going
5.
I've restarted this computer a ___________ times, and it still won't work
right.
A. zillion
B. grillion
C. babillion
C-Matching vocabulary
(Sleek, freezes,
warranty, diagnosed, running)
I hate it when my
computer _________, and I then have to restart it.
My computer is still
under ________, so I might take it back.
Do you know a shop where
I can take my computer to have the problem __________?
How is your computer
_________ these days? You said it had some problems the last time I talked to
you.
That computer screen is
really __________ and beautiful.
3- College Majors
A-Listening
1. Where does the conversation most likely take place?
A. in a college dormitory
B. in a unversity classroom
C. at the school's library
2. What year is the woman in college?
A. second year
B. third year
C. fourth year
3. Which statement is NOT true about her paying for
college?
A. She is currently repaying student loans.
B. She has worked to earn college tuition.
C. She received a scholarship.
4. What is her future job situation?
A. She will work in her father's business after she graduates.
B. She wants to go on to graduate school the following month.
C. She hopes to have interviews with different companies soon.
5. What surprising information do we find out at the end
of the conversation?
A. The woman is dating the man's business teacher.
B. Paul Jones, a college teacher, is the woman's father.
C. The man and woman are actually long-lost relatives.
B- Multiple- choice
1. He has gone to school for
five years, and it has been difficult, but he only has three more months to
finish, so he can now see the light at the end of the _____________.
a. street
b. tunnel
c. river
2. My parents helped me
_________ a number of times by paying for my rent while I was a college
student.
a. out
b. in
c. over
3. You shouldn't
_________________ the teacher for not accepting your homework. You turned the
assignment in late, so it was your own fault.
a. bad-mouth
b. run
over
c. talk
into
4. Be sure to ______________ up
an appointment to visit with your college advisor. He should be able to help
you choose classes for next semester.
a. do
b. talk
c. line
5. She is _________________
around the idea of attending college this fall.
a. batting
b. hitting
c. running
C-Matching exercise
(help out, realistic, batting around, bad-mouth, at the end
of the tunnel)
Having taken college
classes for eight years, she could finally see the light _____________.
You have to be
___________ about your chances of getting into that famous university.
You shouldn't
____________ other people without knowing their situations.
He's _____________ the
possibility of taking summer classes so he can graduate early.
Do you think you can
__________ this weekend? Mom and Dad are moving.
4- English Language Center
A-Listening
1. Which was NOT mentioned as part of the purpose of the
English Language Center?
A. to help international students prepare to enter institutions of higher
learning
B. to teach students how to use English in their daily lives and at work
C. to provide work opportunities for graduating students in the community
2. What is one course taught at the English Language
Center?
A. business English
B. US Culture
C. TOEFL
3. If the Fall semester begins on August 29th, by what
date should one apply to the program?
A. May 29th
B. June 29th
C. July 29th
4. What is the tuition for a full-time student?
A. $2030
B. $2300
C. $2013
5. Which one was NOT mentioned as part of the application
packet a student must send to the center?
A. sponsorship form
B. high school transcripts
C. application fee
B- Matching Vocabulary
(Attending, deadline, literacy, content-based classes,
apply)
Our program offers
____________ so you can study other subjects like business and computer as you
improve your English.
If we improve __________
throughout the country, people will become more informed about the political
process in their country.
Where are you
___________ school this semester?
The ____________ to turn
in this assignment is Friday.
Don't forget to
___________ for financial aid by the end of the month.
5-New
York Travel
A-Listening
1. What time does the plane depart?
A. 6:00 AM
B. 7:30 AM
C. 9:00 AM
2. How will the group get to the hotel from the airport?
A. They will take taxis.
B. They will ride the subway.
C. They will be going by bus.
3. About what time does the hotel restaurant open?
A. 6:00 AM
B. 7:00 AM
C. 8:00 AM
4. What is the group planning to do around Times Square
for about an hour?
A. They're going to have lunch.
B. They will have time to do some shopping.
C. They will be having a tour of the area.
5. What are they going to do after dinner?
A. The group is going to watch a musical.
B. They will catch an exciting movie.
C. They will be attending a broadway play.
B-Multiple- choice
1. I feel very _______________
that my parents are going to pay for my trip. I can't wait to go.
a unhappy
b fortunate
c depressed
2. I have enough money to
________________ my airfare.
a do
b cover
c save
3. Do you want to go
______________ around the park? It only takes about an hour to run the whole
course.
a walking
b swimming
c jogging
4. The bus ______________ at
8:30 AM, so don't be late. I don't want to leave anyone behind.
a rides
b flies
c departs
5. We're going to take a
_____________ across the bay. You'll love the trip as you cross the open water.
The ride only costs $10 per person.
a ferry
b bus
c tax
C-Matching Vocabulary
(Ferry, fortunate, catch, leaves, itinerary)
1. You should look over the
trip _____________ before we leave to the airport.
We are very
______________ to have the time to travel.
Our plane ____________
at 3:20 PM. Please don't be late.
You can ____________ the
movie tonight at 8:00 PM.
The _____________ will
take you across the river to the other side.
Chapter Four: Language functions and related language structures
The different functions of language have different
linguistic demands. Each function has its own typical language structures.
EVALUATING YOURSELF:
|
APOLOGISING
|
This worked well / was effective because….
I did this well because….
It would have been better if I…..
This could be improved by….
Progress is /is not evident because
This succeeds because---
|
Sorry.
I’m sorry for….
I regret……
Please forgive me for - ----
I apologise for ------
Pardon me.
Excuse me.
I beg your pardon.
|
SEEKING ASSISTANCE
|
AGREEING/DISAGREEING
|
Can I have help with…..?
Would you help me to…..?
I need help with—
Please assist me –
Please lend a hand with----
|
I accept /don’t accept
This is correct/incorrect/
That is right /wrong …..
I agree /disagree with that because…..
I don’t agree with you because…..
This is incorrect because
I concur /don’t concur
|
ASKING PERMISSION REQUESTS
|
EXPLAINING
|
Can I…..?
May I….?
Would it be possible for me…..?
Is it all right if….?
Would it be ok if…?
Do you mind if I-----?
I request----- Please let/permit/allow me to
Would you agree to------
|
This happens because
This can be explained by
When this
then that
The results show that—
It is evident that------.
The reason for this is-.
This causes-to happen which results in----
This works by----
|
CLASSIFYING
|
PREDICTION HYPOTHESIS
|
These go together because---
These objects are similar because------
The common feature of this set is--------
The criteria we used for this group is-----
We classified these by-------
|
We will probably see--- because-----.
The result of this will be-----.
If……..then….
I predict…..
I would expect
It is likely that
Because-----this will happen.
|
GENERALISING
|
OBSERVATION
|
Usually/mostly
In most cases
Normally
In general
As a rule By and large/ On average
|
I noticed that….
I observed….
I saw
It was evident that
I discerned
I perceived that
I became aware of
|
SEQUENCE
|
COMMANDING
|
First of all
Next
Then we…
After that
Meanwhile
After a while
Afterwards
Finally
At last
|
I insist that….!
Do this!
I command you to---!
You must---!
At once-----!
I order-----!
I decree----!
I demand----! (At once!)
|
INQUIRY
|
DENIAL
|
How can….?
Would/could/ should----?
What do you think of….?
How do you feel about…?
What’s your opinion of….?
What is your view of…?
What would happen if…..?
Do you think---?
Can---?
May----?
|
It wasn’t me!
It is not possible because-
There must be a misunderstanding as—
I don’t admit to……!
I deny this…..…….!
I wasn’t involved in/with…….
This has nothing to do with me---!
I reject/deny/refute the accusation!
I am hopeful that….
Wouldn’t it be wonderful/great/if
I would really like/fancy …..?
I want/wish I desire It is my wish/desire
|
PREFERENCE
|
EXPRESSING POSITION
|
I prefer…..because
I would prefer it if…….
This is better than- because-
I favour---
I incline towards…more than
I appreciate/enjoy/like- -more
This is not as good as—
|
My opinion is…..
My view is…..
I believe that-----
My position on this is—
My attitude is---
My outlook is---
Personally I believe----
|
OBLIGATION
|
SUGGESTIONS
CRITICAL FEEDBACK
|
I ought to……
I should…so that
I’d better…because
I’m obliged to…because….
I have to/must
I have no option/choice but
My duty requires me to ---
I am committed to---
I am required by—to---
My responsibility is to—----therefore I
must----
|
The successful features of this are----
It would be better if….
In future you could----
This could be improved by--
It will work better when---
It was good when----
I really liked the part where
This worked here why don’t you do it again with----?
Another way of doing that might be—
Have you thought about--?
|
REFUSAL
|
DEDUCTION
|
No!
Absolutely not!
I can’t/ won’t/shan’t because---
I don’t wish to because……
I am unable to because----
I would if I could but---
Unfortunately this is not possible because-----
Sorry.
|
Putting every thing together the answer must be—
There is a pattern which suggests that----
Looking at all the clues the answer must be Logic
suggests that---
|
WARNING OF CONSEQUENCE
|
INFERENCE
|
If this----then
!
The consequence of this will be
If you continue ---will !
The penalty/price for----is----!
Don’t or
else!
The outcome/result of---will be-
You will pay for--- with----!
|
Reading between the lines—
While nobody actually said this---
It is clear/the inference is that –
The words say one thing but the pictures/actions
/expressions tell us that----
Body language makes it clear that---
Nobody said anything but we all understood
from/because of the--- that-
|
COMPARING?CONTRASTING
|
|
It’s much (better, longer, further etc)
The …… are by far the …..
Less than More than Better than Worse than
Best/worst
|
|
Chapter Fife: Writing
The Sentence
A sentence is a group of
words that expresses a complete thought.
A sentence names someone or
something and tells what that person or thing is or does.
Example: Sam went to the store.
While a group of words that do
not express a complete thought can’t be considered a sentence.
Example: Spent hours in gift shops.(Who?)
Let’s practice a
sentence or not?
- My family visited
many places this year.
- Going to the house.
- Make things by
hand.
- Machines change
people’s lives.
- I love to watch
movies.
Notice-don’t forget that a sentence always
begins with a capital letter and ends with an end mark, a dot.
Firstly, according to the form
or the structure a sentence can be classified into:
Simple, Compound and
Complex Sentences.
A- Simple Sentences
Simple
sentences have one verb and one action.
The man walked home.
The tall man with a beard walked home in the pouring
rain
B- Compound Sentences
Compound
sentences have two verbs and are joined together by a conjunction (FANBOYS:
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), both parts of the sentence make
sense on their own.
The dog barked and it woke the baby.
I opened the door so she could come
inside.
C- Complex Sentences
Complex
sentences can have more than one verb. They usually have conjunctions like, if,
when, because, whenever etc… .They have a main clause and
subordinate clause. The subordinate clause cannot work without the main clause.
The baby woke up when the doorbell rang
I can't help
you if you can't tell me what's wrong
Exercises
Read the following sentence and decide if they
are simple, compound or complex.
1.
The boy at his lunch.
2.
The unhappy boy with no shoes ate his tiny lunch on the door step in the rain.
3.
After dinner, the baby woke up his mother with a loud yell.
4.
The dog barked and the baby woke up
5.
The police caught them and put them in jail.
6.
She lived in Hull for many years but she didn't like it.
7.
The dog barked because it was lonely
8.
Because the dog barked, the baby woke up
9.
The dog barked until the baby woke up
10. I
was very happy when I first came to Hull.
Write
three simple sentences
1. ___________________________________________________
2.
___________________________________________________
3.
___________________________________________________
Write
three compound sentences
1.
___________________________________________________
2.
___________________________________________________
3.
___________________________________________________
Write
three complex sentences
1.
___________________________________________________
2.
___________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________
Secondly, according to the function a sentence can
be classified into:
1. Declarative- (.), it makes a statement,
- I love to watch old movies.
2. Interrogative-
(?), it asks a question
- What kind of candy do you like?
3. Imperative-
(.), it gives a command, order, etc.,
- Go get the paper off the porch.
4. Exclamatory- (!), it shows strong feeling or
emotions,
- What
a beautiful view it is!
5- Conditional- it contains a condition and a result.
-
If you pass the
test, I’ll give you a gift.
Ways to join the sentences
the conjunction are words used to join different sentences.
In the exercises that follow we will practice some of the main ways in which
different ideas can be joined to make complete sentences.
The main conjunctions used to form compound sentences are: and,
but, yet, so, both…..and, either…..or, neither….nor, not
only…..but
-
Both my wife and
I went out early yesterday.
-
We will have
either to wait for them or to leave a message.
-
He neither took
my advice nor his father advice.
Now practice
1- He was in Italy last year. Now he has returned home.
(but)
2- He told me to leave. He told me never to call again. (not
only…but)
3-I have often invited here. He has never come. (yet)
4-He did not tell me the truth. I misunderstood him.(either
….or)
5-I forget my umbrella. I had to return home. (so)
To make complex sentences we use the following
relative pronouns (who, whom, which, whose, that)
- The man whom you
saw yesterday is my brother
- He has received the money
which I sent him.
- The men who will
be playing on Saturday all belong to our local club
- This is the house that
jack built.
- It is Ahmed whose
money got stolen yesterday.
Now practice
1- Mr. John bought a new house. He has furnished it
beautifully.
2- There were a lot of people at the party. I had not met
them before.
3- I have a few relatives. They live in the country.
4- The man had to pay a fine. His car was parked on the
wrong side of the road.
5- He is a lazy student. I can never depend on him.
We use the following ways to include questions in sentences,
note that in an indirect question the subject must be placed before the verb:
- I cannot remember where I
left my coat.
- He asked me when my
brother would arrive.
- You did not tell me how
much this shirt cost.
Now practice
1- Why did he refuse to see me? You must find out.
2- How did you find out my address? Please tell me.
3- Did he leave the firm? Ask him why.
4- How did he recognize you? I can’t understand it.
5- What time does the train arrive? No one seems to know.
Other junctions are used to give reasons or for
justifications are (as, since, because, now that,
so….that, such…….that, to, in order to, so as to,
etc…..).
Study these examples:
- We didn’t expect you because
you did not let us know you were coming
- Now that it has
stopped raining, I shall not have to take an umbrella.
- You had better not stay
too long as I have a lot of work to do.
- The little boy hid behind
the door in order that his aunt might not see him.
Now practice
1- He was so glad to see me. He
asked me to stay the night.
2- It is raining heavily. I will
not go out.
3- He is sure to pass his
examination. He has worked so hard.
4- He is so shy person. He
dislikes talking to strangers.
5- The thief drove quickly out of
the town. He did not want the police to catch him.
6- He went into the room quietly.
He did not want to disturb his brother who was asleep.
Finally we can use the following to join the sentences:
although, even though, however, even if, in spite of,
etc……..)
- Although I wrote to him
several times, I received no answer.
- He still not good enough for
the football team in spite of his good skills in football.
- We are determined to get there;
however, it is far away.
- The journey takes too long even
if you go by plane.
Now practice
1- We are going on an excursion. The weather is bad.
2- He speaks English so well. He has never been to France.
3- I should not work for him if I were you. It does not
matter if he offers you a big salary.
4- I still think the film is poor. It does not matter so
many people enjoyed it.
5- I am sure he won’t come. It does matter how long you wait.
What is the Paragraph:
If you look at
any printed prose book, you will see that each chapter is divided up into sections,
the first line of each being indented slightly to the right. These sections are
called paragraphs. Chapters, essays and other prose compositions are broken up
to paragraphs; to make the reading of them easier, for the beginning of a new
paragraph marks a change of topic, or a step in the development of an argument
of a story. In writing essays or other compositions, it is important to know
how to divide them properly into paragraphs; for an essay not so broken up,
looks uninteresting and is not easy to read.
A paragraph is a number of
sentences grouped together and relating to one topic; or, a group of related
sentences that develop a single point.
These definitions show that the
paragraphs of a composition are not arbitrary divisions. The division of a
chapter into paragraphs must be made according to the changes of ideas
introduced. There is, therefore, no rule as to the length of paragraphs. They
may be short or long according to the necessity of the case. A paragraph may
consist of a single sentence or of many sentences.
Principles of Paragraph Structure:
1- Unity- Just as
each sentence deals with one thought, each paragraph must deal with one topic
or idea- and with no more than one. In writing an essay, for example, every
head, and every sub-head, should its own paragraph to itself. And every
sentence in a paragraph must be closely connected with the main topic of the
paragraph. The paragraph and every part of it must be the expression of one topic.
The topic, theme or subject of a paragraph is very often expressed in one
sentence of the paragraph-generally the first. This sentence is called the
controlling or topical sentence because it states the topic or the
key-sentence as it unlocks or opens the subject to be dealt with in the paragraph.
2- Order- that is, logical
sequence of thought or development of the subject.
Events must be related in the order of their occurrence, and all ideas should
be connected with the leading idea and arranged according to their importance
or order.
Note- the two most
important sentences in the paragraph are the first and last. The first, which
should contain controlling idea, should arouse the interest of the reader; and
the last should satisfy it. The first sentence states the topic—a fact, a
statement, or a proposition; the last should bring the whole paragraph on this
topic to a conclusion, or summing up.
3- Variety- by
which is meant that, to avoid monotony, the paragraph of a composition should
be of different length, and not always of the same sentence composition.
To sum up, the essentials of a good paragraph construction
are:
1- Unity.
2- A good topical sentence.
3- Logical sequence of thought.
4- Variety.
5- A full and rounded final sentence in conclusion.
The Structure of a Good Paragraph:
A good
paragraph is a unit of information unified by a controlling
idea. The paragraph is a good one only if the reader completely
understands the unit of information it contains and if its controlling idea is
completely developed. The controlling ideal is the central idea that is
developed in a paragraph. Therefore, the controlling idea is the summary of all
the information contained in its paragraph. Consequently, no information that
cannot be summarized by the controlling idea can be included in a paragraph.
Thus, the controlling idea is a restricting idea because it limits the
information that can be included in its paragraph. It must be completely
developed and explained in its paragraph. Having read a paragraph, the reader
should not have to ask questions that should have been answered in that
paragraph.
For example, read the following
paragraph:
“ there are three
reasons why john is not going to university. In the first place, his father is
dead if john went to university, his mother would be left all alone. She has a
few friends, but they do not live very near, and she would probably have to spend
most evenings alone. Consequently, although john wants to go to university very
much, he is going to get a job near home instead.”(only one reason is given)
Since the controlling idea
restricts the information that can be included in the paragraph, it follows
that the writer must exclude information that does not develop the controlling
idea and include only the information that does develop it.
For example the controlling idea:
“ I heard some good news from Mary Smith last week” should only include information about it i.e.
(good news from Mary last week).
The sentence which contains the controlling idea is called topic
sentence because it contains the idea or topic that is developed and explained
in the rest of the paragraph. This sentence may be found in any position in a
paragraph: at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end. A topic sentence
containing the controlling idea provides a clear guide both to the writer and
to the reader to what is relevant to be included in a paragraph and what is
irrelevant to be excluded from it.
Sometimes the controlling idea of a paragraph is not stated in a single
sentence. Consequently, there may not be a sentence that can be described as
the topic sentence; it is called an implied controlling idea. Perhaps with an
implied controlling idea very frequently occur in an essay or a letter.
“ John gets up at
six-thirty in the morning. At seven-twenty he eats breakfast. At eight o’clock
he goes to work. John gets back from work at five-forty. In the evening he
watches TV or visits his friends. He usually goes to bed around eleven.”
Major and Minor Sentences:
With exception to the
controlling idea, each sentence in a good paragraph can be classified into one
of two groups: major support sentences or minor support sentences.
1- Major Support Sentences
They have only one
job, they develop the controlling idea of a paragraph by telling the reader
something new or different about that idea. They directly support the
controlling idea by making that idea more easily understood.
2- Minor Support Sentences
They have two functions:
a- they develop their major support sentences by telling the reader
something new or different about these sentences, and
b- at the same time they help their major support sentences to develop the
controlling idea. They directly support their major sentences by making them
easily understood. They indirectly support the controlling idea of the
paragraph by helping their major support sentences make that idea more easily
understood. Therefore, minor support sentences must be closely related both to
their major support sentences and to controlling idea of the paragraph. Minors
support sentences are essential to the reader’s understanding of the paragraph.
Now study the
following paragraph:
“White’s is a good drugstore. It is very modern and clean inside.
Drugstores should always be clean. Housewives like to sit, have tea, coffee, or
a soft drink, and gossip there after shopping. White’s is a good place to buy
soap, razor blades, shaving cream, toothbrushes, tooth-paste, and other toilet
article. There is always a large choice, and the prices are always
reasonable.”
Essay Sample:
Short essay on the importance of Mathematics
It is said that
Mathematics is the gate and key of the Science. According to the famous
Philosopher Kant, "A Science is exact only in so far as it employs
Mathematics". So, all scientific education which does not commence with
Mathematics is said to be defective at its foundation. Neglect of mathematics
works injury to all knowledge.
One who is ignorant
of mathematics cannot know other things of the World. Again, what is worse, who
are thus ignorant are unable to perceive their own ignorance and do not seek
any remedy. So Kant says, "A natural Science is a Science in so far as it
is mathematical". And Mathematics has played a very important role in
building up modern Civilization by perfecting all Science.
In this modern age
of Science and Technology, emphasis is given on Science such as Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, Medicine and Engineering. Mathematics, which is a Science
by any criterion, also is an efficient and necessary tool being employed by all
these Sciences. As a matter of fact, all these Sciences progress only with the
aid of Mathematics. So it is aptly remarked, "Mathematics is a Science of
all Sciences and art of all arts."
Mathematics is a
creation of human mind concerned chiefly with ideas, processes and reasoning.
It is much more than Arithmetic, more than Algebra more than Geometry. Also it
is much more than Trigonometry, Statistics, and Calculus.
Mathematics
includes all of them. Primarily mathematics is a way of thinking, a way of
organizing a logical proof. As a way reasoning, it gives an insight into the
power of human mind, so this forms a very valuable discipline of
teaching-learning programmes of school subjects everywhere in the world of
curious children. So the pedagogy of Mathematics should very carefully be built
in different levels of school education.
In the pedagogical
study of mathematics we mainly concern ourselves with two things; the manner in
which the subject matter is arranged or the method the way in which it is
presented to the pupils or the mode of presentation. Mathematics is intimately
connected with everyday life and necessary to successful conduct of affairs. It
is an instrument of education found to be in conformity with the needs of human
mind.
Teaching of
mathematics has its aims and objectives to be incorporated in the school
curricula. If and when Mathematics is removed, the back-bone of our material
civilization would collapse. So is the importance of Mathematics and its
pedagogic.
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