Appendicitis

Appendicitis

Definition:

AppendicitisAppendicitis is inflammation of the vermiform appendix caused by an obstruction of the intestinal lumen from infection, stricture, fecal mass, foreign body, or tumor.

Pathophysiology/Etiology

1)   Obstruction is followed by inflammation of the appendix, edema, infection, and mucous ulceration, ischemia and the lumen filled with pus.

2)   As intraluminal tension develops, necrosis and perforation usually occur.

3)   Appendicitis can affect any age group, but is most common in males 10 to 30 years old.

Clinical Manifestations

1)   Generalized or localized abdominal pain in the epigastric or periumbilical areas and the upper right abdomen. Within 2 to 12 hours, the pain localizes in the right lower quadrant and intensity increases.

2)   Local tenderness at the mc Burny's point

3)   Rebound tenderness, involuntary guarding.

4)   Rovsing's sign by palpating left lower quadrant cause pain in the right lower quadrant.

5)   Anorexia, moderate malaise, mild fever, nausea and vomiting.

6)   Usually constipation occurs; occasionally diarrhea.

7)   Late, tachycardia and fever.

8)   If appendix ruptures, pain becomes more diffuse, abdominal distension from paralytic ileus and the condition worsen

Diagnostic Evaluation

1)   Physical examination consistent with clinical manifestations.

2)   White blood cell (WBC) count reveals moderate leukocytosis (10,000 to 16,000/mm) with shift to the left (increased neutrophils).

3)   Abdominal x-ray may visualize shadow consistent with fecalith in appendix.

4)   Pelvic sonogram can visualize appendix and rule out ovarian cyst. 

Management

Surgery

a)    Simple appendectomy or laparoscopic appendectomy.

b)   Preoperatively maintain bed rest, NPO status, IV hydration, possible antibiotic prophylaxis, and analgesia.

Complications

1)   Perforation (in 95% of cases)

2)   Abscess

3)   Peritonitis

Nursing Assessment

1)   Obtain history for location and extent of pain.

2)   Auscultate for presence of bowel sounds; peristalsis may be absent or diminished.

3)   On palpation of the abdomen, assess for tenderness anywhere in the right lower quadrant, but often localized over McBurney’s point (point just below midpoint of line between umbilicus and iliac crest on the right side).

4)   Assess for rebound tenderness in the right lower quadrant as well as referred rebound when palpating the left lower quadrant.

5)   Assess for positive psoas sign by having the patient attempt to raise the right thigh against the pressure of your hand placed over the right knee. Inflammation of the psoas muscle in acute appendicitis will increase abdominal pain with this maneuver.

6)   Assess for positive obturator sign by flexing the patient’s right hip and knee and rotating the leg internally. Hypogastric pain with this maneuver indicates inflammation of the obturator muscle.

Nursing Diagnoses

1)   Pain related to inflamed appendix

2)   Risk for Infection related to perforation

Nursing Interventions

A.      Relieving Pain

1)   Monitor pain level, including location, intensity, pattern.

2)   Assist patient to more comfortable positions, such as semi-Fowler’s and knees up.

3)   Restrict activity that may aggravate pain, such as coughing and ambulation.

4)   Apply ice bag to abdomen for comfort.

5)   Give analgesics only as ordered after diagnosis is determined.

6)   Avoid indiscriminant palpation of the abdomen to avoid increasing the patient’s discomfort.

7)   Do not give antipyretics to mask fever and do not administer cathartics, because they may cause rupture.

B.      Preventing Infection

1)   Monitor frequently for signs and symptoms of worsening condition indicating perforation, abscess, or peritonitis: increasing severity of pain, tenderness, rigidity, distention, ileus, fever, malaise, tachycardia.

2)   Administer antibiotics as ordered.

3)   Promptly prepare patient for surgery.

Evaluation

1)   Verbalizes increased comfort with positioning and analgesics

2)   Afebrile; no rigidity or distention

Peritonitis

Definition

Peritonitis is a generalized or localized inflammation of the peritoneum, the membrane lining the abdominal cavity and covering visceral organs. Usually it is result from bacterial infection.

Pathophysiology/Etiology

A.      Primary Peritonitis  Acute, diffuse, relatively rare

1)   Occurs primarily in young females; often due to pathogenic bacteria (streptococci, pneumococci, gonococci) introduced through uterine tubes or through hematogenous spread.

2)   In patients with nephrosis or cirrhosis, the offending organism is most often Eschericia coli.

B.      Secondary Peritonitis  Contamination by GI secretions.

1)   Complication of appendicitis, diverticulitis, peptic ulceration, biliary tract disease, colon inflammation, volvulus, strangulated obstruction, abdominal neoplasm.

2)   May occur after abdominal trauma: gunshot wound, stab wound, blunt trauma from motor vehicle accident.

3)   Postoperative complication

a)    May occur after intraoperative intestinal spillage.

b)   Compromised patients are vulnerable (those with diabetes, malignancy, malnutrition, or receiving steroid therapy).

Clinical Manifestations

1)         Initially, local type of abdominal pain tends to become constant, diffuse, and more intense.

2)         Abdomen becomes extremely tender and muscles become rigid: rebound tenderness and ileus may be present; patient lies very still, usually with legs drawn up.

3)         Percussion—resonance and tympany due to paralytic ileus; loss of liver dullness may indicate free air in abdomen.

4)         Auscultation—decreased bowel sounds.

5)         Nausea and vomiting often occur; peristalsis diminishes; anorexia is present.

6)         Elevation of temperature and pulse as well as leukocytosis.

7)         Fever; thirst; oliguria; dry, swollen tongue; signs of dehydration.

8)         Weakness, pallor, diaphoresis, and cold skin are a result of the loss of fluid, electrolytes, and protein into the abdomen.

9)         Hypotension and hypokalemia may occur.

10)    Shallow respirations may result from abdominal distention and upward displacement of the diaphragm.

Note: With generalized peritonitis, large volumes of fluid may be lost into abdominal cavity (can account for losses to 5 L/day).

Diagnostic Evaluation

1)   WBC to show leukocytosis (leukopenia if severe).

2)   Arterial blood gases—may show metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation.

3)   Urinalysis—may indicate urinary tract problems as primary source.

4)   Peritoneal aspiration (paracentesis)—to demonstrate blood, pus, bile, bacteria (gram staining), amylase.

5)   Abdominal x-rays—may show gas and fluid collection in small and large intestines, generalized dilatation.

6)   CT of abdomen—may reveal abscess formation.

7)   Laparotomy—to identify the underlying cause.

Management

1)   Treatment of inflammatory conditions preoperatively and postoperatively with antibiotic therapy—may prevent peritonitis. Broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy to cover aerobic and anaerobic organisms is initial treatment, followed by specific antibiotic therapy after culture and sensitivity results.

2)   Bed rest, NPO status.

3)   Parenteral replacement of fluid and electrolytes.

4)   Analgesics for pain; antiemetics for nausea and vomiting.

5)   Nasogastric intubation to decompress the bowel.

6)   Possibly rectal tube to facilitate passage of gas.

7)   Operative procedures to close perforations, remove infection source (i.e., inflamed organ, neurotic tissue), drain abscesses, and lavage peritoneal cavity.

8)   Abdominal paracentesis may be done to remove accumulating fluid.

Complications

1)   Intraabdominal abscess formation (ie, pelvic subphrenic space)

2)   Septicemia

Nursing Assessment

1)   Assess for abdominal distention and tenderness, guarding, rebound, hypoactive or absent bowel sounds to determine bowel function.

2)   Observe for signs of shock—tachycardia and hypotension.

3)   Monitor vital signs, arterial blood gases, complete blood count, electrolytes, and central venous pressure to monitor hemodynamic status and assess for complications.

Nursing Diagnoses

A.  Pain related to peritoneal inflammation

B.   Fluid Volume Deficit related to vomiting and interstitial fluid shift

C.   Altered Nutrition, Less Than Body Requirements, related to GI symptomatology

Nursing Interventions

A.      Achieving Pain Relief

1)   Place the patient in semi-Fowler’s position before surgery to enable less painful breathing.

2)   After surgery, place the patient in Fowler’s position to promote drainage by gravity.

3)   Provide analgesics as prescribed.

B.      Maintaining Fluid/Electrolyte Volume

1)   Keep patient NPO to reduce peristalsis.

2)   Provide IV fluids to establish adequate fluid intake and to promote adequate urinary output, as prescribed.

3)   Record accurately intake and output, including the measurement of vomitus and NG drainage.

4)   Minimize nausea, vomiting, and distention by use of NG suction, antiemetics.

5)   Monitor for signs of hypovolemia: dry mucous membranes, oliguria, postural hypotension, tachycardia, diminished skin turgor.

C.      Achieving Adequate Nutrition

1)   Administer TPN, as ordered, to maintain positive nitrogen balance until patient can resume oral diet.

2)   Reduce parenteral fluids and give oral food and fluids per order, when the following occur:

a)    Temperature and pulse return to normal.

b)   Abdomen becomes soft.

c)    Peristaltic sounds return (determined by abdominal auscultation).

d)   Flatus is passed and patient has bowel movements.

Patient Education/ Health Maintenance

1)   Teach patient and family how to care for open wounds and drain sites, if appropriate.

2)   Assess the need for home care nursing to assist with wound care and assess healing; refer as necessary.

Evaluation

A.        Minimal analgesics needed; abdomen soft, nontender, and no distention

B.         Balanced intake and output, no evidence of dehydration or electrolyte imbalances

C.         Bowel sounds present; tolerating soft diet.